FATIH AND INNER PEACE

FATIH AND INNER PEACE

    Friday, September 14, 2012   No comments

Professor Dr: Hayati AYDIN*

ABSTRACT

This article emphasises that faith provides a internal peace and calmness in the believers' spıritual world. The word iman already expresses reliance and composure. The article, analyzes the the effect of belief in internal world according to verses and commentaries which made by intellectuals of İslam. It is touched on in some places that depression as a result of incredulity in their spıritual worlds.

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Faith changed the course of history. It is the biggest elixir and source of power which removes mountains from their own places, supports base for going into dangers fearlessly.

Faith is very important thing in Islam, too. We say, as Izutsu's point out:  “Belief is the real fountain-head of all Islamic virtues; it creates them all, and no virtue is thinkable in Islam, which is not based on the sincere faith in God and His revelations” ¹

The word of believing in Islam is entitled as Iman. This concept derives from e-m-n origin. E-m-n is soul's confidence and disappearance of fear.²This is Iman's Becoming (Sayrurat) meaning as “Âslama”. With this dimension to say “Âslama” means “Sare zâ silmin”, that is to say to find confidence and to reach safety.³ So with this dimension to say “Âmana means “Sare zâ amnin” namely to find soul's confidence and safety. For this reason,Zamakhshari refers to on Arabian saying “Ma Amantu an acida sahabatan” (I didn't find a companion), namely I didn't trust (a companion) and they (Arabians) by the word of Âmana aims confidence and serenity.⁴ We can find this meaning in those verses:

“It is those who believe and confuse not their belief with wrong-that are (truly) in security, for they are on (right) guidance” (Al-An'am, 6 / 82)

“Those who disbelieve and obstruct (others) from the way of God will have wasted their deeds. But Those who believe and do right, and believe what has been revealed to Muhammad, which is the truth from their Lord, will have their faults condoned by Him and set their hearts (Bal) fully serenity and presence. That is because those who refuse to believe only follow what is false; but those who believe follow the truth from their Lord. That is how God gives men perception of wisdom” (Muhammad, 47/ 1-3)

According to some commentators in the last verse, “Bal” is the meaning of condition and situation⁵ but according to others this concept is coming to the meaning of condition, the easy of life or the meaning of mind, intention, heart, heart's thought, reminiscence⁶ or the wideness of soul.⁷  This second meaning is the best meaning on the concept according to the Qur'an's holistic background. So, in my opinion, the meaning of “Wa aslaha balahum” is God sets believers' hearts fully serenity and presence or gives to them soul's wideness.

Contrary to confidence of faith,  absence this issue brings about distrustfulness, narrowness of soul and psychological troubles. This is obviously psychological instability. This presence is only been overcame by believing and doing good actions.  The Qur'an says:

 “What do those who seek after evil ways think that We shall hold them equal with those who believe and do righteous deeds-that equal will be their life and their death? Ill is the judgement that they make” (Al-Jathiyah, 45/21)

Muhammad Asad also says that the reference to the intrinsic difference between these two categories with regard to “their life and their death” points not only to the moral quality of their worldly existence, but also to the inner peace and tranquillity. That with which a true believer faces life's tribulations and the moment of death, and on the other hand, to the nagging anxiety which too often accompanies spiritual nihilism, and the “fear of the unknown” at the time of dying.⁸ The Qur'an says that in the other verse: “… He who follows My Guidance will not go astray, and neither will he be unhappy” (Tâ-Hâ, 20 / 122)

How do this presence and serenity occur? What is the reason underlying this? I want to give an example in the context of verses:

“There is no calamity that befalls the earth or your own selves but in accordance with the law (of causation) before We make it evident. This is indeed how the law of God works inevitably. Lest you grieve for what you missed, or rejoice at what you received…” (Al-Hadîd, 57/ 22-23)

This verse shows us that all of the events occur according to a destiny. Thus, the knowledge that whatever has happened had to happen- and could not, have not happened- because, obviously, it had been willed by God in accordance with His unfathomable plan, ought to enable a true believer to react with conscious equanimity to whatever good or ill comes to him. ⁹   Zamakshari says in this verse of Qur'an that when you know everything existed by means of human destiny that is under the control of God, sadness about your losses, and happiness about your benefits are decreased. Since, if one who definitely knows s/he may lose incomes, there will not be any unbearable sadness. This is because s/he arranges his/her desires according to this situation. For instance, if one who knows some good deeds are reached in any condition, s/he will not be spoiled from the reason of benefits s/he got. ¹⁰ Thus the Quran says that

“No disaster strikes except by permission of Allah. And whoever believes in Allah -He will guide his heart…” (At-Tağâbun, 64/ 11)

Said Nursi says that belief in God bears the seed of what is in effect a Tuba-Tree of Paradise, while unbelief conceals the seed of a Zakkum-Tree of Hell.¹¹ The nature of disbelief makes known Hell. Yes, just as if the true nature of belief was to be embodied, it could take on the form of a private paradise with its pleasures, and in this respect gives secret news of Paradise; So, disbelief, and especially absolute disbelief, and dissembling, and apostasy, are the cause of such dark and awful pains and spiritual torment that if they were to be embodied, they would become a private Hell for an apostate, and in this way tell of the greater Hell in concealed manner. The tiny truths in the seed-bed of this world produce shoots in the hereafter. Thus, this poisonous seed indicates that particular tree of Zaqqum:

“I am its origin. For the unfortunate who bears me in his heart, my fruit is a private sample of that Zaqqum-tree.”¹²

Just as some psychiatrists say that the stress of the men of this century indeed comes from unbelieving. ¹³

“We shall invest whosoever works for good, whether man or woman, with a pleasant life and reward them in accordance with the best of what they have done” (An-Nahl, 16/97)

Commentator Fahkr ad-din ar-Razi interprets this verse in terms of faith, serenity and presence. He states that the believer (in God) believes that his bread comes according to God's plan, and believes the God is most benevolent and make goodness lonely. Therefore s/he agrees the judgement of God on the subject.

Again the believer thinks various disasters and troubles and knows those mishaps happen according to the wish of God and agrees with this. They do not overestimate them in their hearts and minds are not influenced by then.¹⁴ About the interpretation of the verses Hasan Al-Basri says that the meaning of the verse is this: We will make taste of obedience to the obedient.¹⁵ This comment if held as base it is understood that there is beautiful life for believers and those who act in accordance with their belief.

Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya claims that obedience to God inside human heart is the great castle of God keeping individuals from punishments of world and next world. One who goes out of this castle is surrounded by fears. If one who obeys God can get away from these fears and get secured. If one who is rebellious will keep fears instead of security. Those who are afraid of God will be sure of everything about world and those who are not will be afraid of everything. ¹⁶

The mankind is weak. His disasters and troubles are many; his needs and loves are unlimited; the bearing of his life is very hard. If he does not trust in his God he attracts troubles, his heart remains in torment and those troubles overwhelm him.

“As for life if it is a without belief, or because of rebelliousness belief is ineffective, it will produce pains, sorrows and grief far exceeding the superficial, fleeting enjoyment it brings. Because, since, contrary to the animals, man possesses a mind and he thinks, he is connected to both the present time, and to the past and the future. He can obtain both pain and pleasure from them. Whereas, since the animals do not think, the sarrows arising from the past and the fears and anxieties arising from the future do not spoil their plesure of the present. Especially if the pleasure is illicit; then it is like an altogether poisononous honey.

thousands of grief's sorrow man, those drag him into anxious that he can't get any pleasure from his enjoyment, as there are intelligence and thought in man contrast to animal. Thus, man with present relates to past and future. The fears that coming from past and future affects his present enjoyments and pleasures and make him anxious and destroy him'.¹⁷ This is true observation. Since reason is rather effective on man from instincts, animals are rather fortunate to enjoy the taste of life more than us. Because, animals have not a logic. Just as Kant says those in this context: In a being (man) which has reason and a will, if the proper object of nature was its conservation, its welfare, in a word, its happiness, then nature would have hit upon a very bad arrangement in selecting the reason of the creature to carry out this purpose. For all actions which the creature has to perform with a view to this purpose, and the whole rule of its conduct, would be far more surely prescribed to it by instinct. In fact, we find that the more cultivated reason applies itself with deliberate purpose to the enjoyment of life satisfaction. And from this circumstance there arises in many, if they are candid enough to confess it, a certain degree of mythology, that is, hatred of reason.¹⁸

According to commentator Said Nursi the belief gives their owner such high performance. He says

 “One who recognises Him (the God) and obeys Him is fortunate even if he is in prison. While one who forgets Him is wretched and a prisoner even if he resides in a palace” ¹⁹Al-Qardawi too says similar word: “Believing in God gives sakina (calmness) and it turned a hut to a palace but those deprived of sakina a palace is turned to a hut”²⁰

For this reason, living according to faith is a source of beauty. So the Qur'an says:

“But for him who lived in awe of sublimit of his Lord, there will be two gardens” (Ar-Rahmân, 55/ 46)

According to some commentators, these two gardens are destined respectively for men and jinn. According to some, for each believer, one of them is for their body pleasures, other one is for their spiritual pleasures and delights.

However in some interpreters' opinion the one of the two gardens is the life of a Muslim that alive in this world in this verse. Namely according to this life of a Muslim is going in paradisiacal feeling in this world.²¹  For this reason, Ibn Taymiyah says that in fact, the blessing and taste, joy and mature could only be achieved by recognizing of Allah, and loving Him. According to him, real happiness would only be possible by being close to Allah, and meeting Him. Here this is the paradise in the world. One who does not enter this first paradise (that in this world) can not enter the second one (the Hereafter). ²²

Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya in the interpretation of this verse: “The pious will surely be in heaven, the wicked certainly in hell” (Al-Infitar, 82/13-14)says: Don't suppose that the verse belong to the next world (hereafter). In the reality these persons in three phases (Dunya, Berzah and next world) are in God's blessings and the others are in hell. Which taste and blessing are better than happiness of heart, peace of soul, grasping the existence of God, loving Him and acceptance of God's will , human destiny and living according to these? (Tabaraka and Taala). In fact the art of living is the peace of heart, isn't it? For this reason, God has presented Hz. Abraham as an ideal believer of God over his character that is emphasised by peace of soul in the Qur'an. ²³ “And Abraham indeed was of his inducement, when he came to his Lord with a heart complainant” (As-Saffat, 37/ 83-84)

Prophet Muhammad (p.u.h.) said “There is a piece of flesh inside man's body. When it is purified, the whole body remains impure. That piece is the heart (qalb)”²⁴ This hadith shows us that when the inner world of man is peaceful and away from worry this condition spread over the entire of body.

Here the most profound influence of religion, in the heart of  human is such an elicitation  happiness.

Said Nursi says “If the light of thought is not illuminated with the light of the heart and blended with it, it is darkness and breeds tyranny. If the white of the eye, which resembles day, was not together with its black pupil, which resembles night, the eye would not be the eye; it would be unseeing. Similarly, if the black core of the heart is not present in white thought, it lacks insight” ²⁵

This situation brings about intrinsic faith' constructs calmness and peace inside heart. Nevertheless, İbrahim b. Ethem says that “if kings and sultans know this psychological beauty surrounding us, they will absolutely wage war by their swords to get this kind of mood”. ²⁶ So when Prophet Muhammad (p.u.h.) wrote a letter to Heraclius this crucial statement was written:

“Feinnî ad'uke bidiayeti'l-Islam. Aslim taslim (I invite you to be Muslim. Be Muslim find peace of mind.)” ²⁷

It is understood that  the darkness of the heart is the source of spiritual distress, while belief is its elixir.

In conclusion, human is the weakest being in organics. Additionally, life has a lot of burdens, afflictions and troubles. If people don't take refuge in iman's castle this troubles, burdens and afflictions would mislead them and it barriers to take pleasures from their possesions. However faith takes rola as a good shield in this subject. 

BIBLIYOGRAPHY

Abd Ar-Rahim, Muhammad, Tafsir Al-Hasan Al-Basri, (Dar Al-Hadis).

Abu Abdillah Muhammad b. Ahmad, Al-Qurtubi, Al-Jâmi lî-Ahkâm al-Qur'ân, (Beirut: Dâr Al-Kütub Al-İlmiyye, 1988).

Abu Al-Qasim Abd al-karim, Al- Qushayri,  Tafshir Al-Kushayri, (Beirut: Dar Al-Kutub Al-Ilmiyya).

Ahmed b. Hanbel, Sunan, (İstanbul: Çağrı publishing house, 1992)

Al-Raghib al-Isfahani,  Abul-Qasim Husayn ibn Muhammad Al- Mufradat fi Gharib al-Qur'ân, (Beirut: Dâr al-Ma'rifa).

Ash-Shawkan', Muhammad b. Ali, Al-Fath Al-Qadir Al-Jami' fi Ar-Rivayah wa Dirayah min 'Ilmi At-Tafshir, (Egypt: Mustafa Al-Babi Al-Halabî, 1964).

Baydawî, Abdullah b. Umar, Anvarü Al-Tenzil wa Asrarü Al-Te'wil (Min Khashiyeti Shaikhzâde) (İstanbul: Hakikat publishing house, 1991.

Fakhr al-Din, al-Razi, Al-Tafsir al-Kabir, (Tahran: Dâr Al-Kütub Al-İlm,).

Hamidullah, Muhammad, Al-Vesaiku As-Siyasiyye, (Beirut: Daru Al-Nefâis, 1985).

Hamidullah, Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam (Translated to Turkish language by: Salih Tuğ, 4. edt., İstanbul: İrfan Yayınevi, 1980).

Ibn Maca, Sunan, (İstanbul: Çağrı publishing house, 1992).

Ibn Qayyim, Al-Jawzaiyya, Al-Jawabu Al-Kafi li Man Saala an Dawâi  As-Shafi, (Beirut: Dar Al-Ihyâi Ulûm, 1990).

Ibn Qayyim, Al-Jawzaiyya, Tibb Al-Qulub, (Jidde: 1983).

Ibn Qayyim, Al-Jawzaiyya, Ad-Dâ'u wa Ad-Dawâu, (Damascus: Dar al-Qalem, 2001).

Immanuel, Kant, Fundemental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals (Translated by. T. K. Abbott, Edited by. Prometheus Books, 1988).

Jung, C.G., Psychology and Religion West and East, (Was translated to English language  by R. F. C. Hull), (Pantheon Books).

Mahmud b. 'Umar, al- Zamakhshari, Al-Kashshâf 'an Haqâ'iq al-Tanzîl wa 'Uyun al- Aqâwil fi Wujuh' al-Ta'wil, (Dâr Al-Kitab Al-Arabî, 1987).

Maḥmūd b. ʻAbd Allāh, al-Ālūsī, Ruh Al-Ma'âni fî at-Tafsir al-Qur'ân al-Azîm wa al- Sab' al-Mathânî, (Beirut: Dar Al-Fikr, 1987).

Muhammad b. Ya'kub, al- Firuzabadi, Tartib al-Qamus al-Muhit,alâ Tarikat Al-Misbah Al-Munir wa Asasi Al-Blaga, (Isa Al-Babi Al-Halabi).

Muhammad, Asad, The Message of the Qur'an, (England: The Book Foundation, 2003).

Muslim, Sahih, (İstanbul: Çağrı publishing house, 1992).

Penrica B.A., John, Dictinary and Glossary the Qur'an, Curzon Press, 1976.

Robert, Frager, Heart, Self and Soul / Kalp, Nafs wa Ruh (Translated to Turkish Language by Ibrahim Kapaklikaya), (Gelenek publishing house, 2003).

Sad al-Din Masud b. Umar ibn Abd Allah, al-Taftazani,  Tadrij al-Adani Sharh Al-Zanjani, (İstanbul: Salah Bilici publishing house).

Said, Nursi, Mektubat / Letters (translated to English language  by: Sukran Vahide), (Istanbul: Sozler Nesriyat, 2001).

Siad, Nursi,  Sozler, (Istanbul: Söz Basım yayın publishing house,  2004).

Tabari, Abu Ja'fer Muhammad b. Jerir, The History of Al-Tabarî / Târih Al-Umam wa Al-Mülûk,  (Beirut: 1407).

Toshihiko, Izutsu, The Structure of The Ethical Terms in The Qur'an, (Tokyo: Keio University, 1959).

Umar Abdullah, Kamil, At-Tasavvuf Beyna Al-Ifrat wa At-Tafrit, (Beirut: 2001).

Yusuf, Al-Qardawî, Al-Iman wa Al-Hayat, (Beirut: Muassasatu Ar-Risala, 1991).

Yusuf, al-Qardawi, Yusuf, Al-Hasâisu al-Amma li Al-Islam, (Maktabatu Vahba).

¹* At Divinity Faculty of Yuzuncu Yil University VAN / TURKEY

  Toshihiko, Izutsu,  The Structure of the ethical terms in the Qur'an, (Tokyo: Keio University, 1959),   p. 173

² Al-Raghib al-Isfahani,  Abul-Qasim Husayn ibn Muhammad Al- Mufradat fi gharib al-Qur'ân, (Beirut: Dâr al-Ma'rifa), p. 239

³ Look. Sad al-Din Masud ibn Umar ibn Abd Allah, al-Taftazani,  Tadrij al-adani sharh al-zanjani, (İstanbul: Salah Bilici publishing house), p. 24; Al-Isfahanî, Ibid, p. 239

⁴ Mahmud b. 'Umar, al- Zamakhshari, Al-Kashshâf 'an haqâ'iq al-tanzîl wa 'uyun al- aqâwil fi wujuh' al-ta'wil, (Beirut: Dâr al-kitab al-Arabi, 1987), 1: 37; Baydawî, Abdullah b. Umar, Anvarü al-tenzil wa asrarü al-te'wil (Min Khashiyeti Shaikhzâde) (İstanbul: Hakikat publishing house, 1991), 1: 84

⁵ Zamakhshari,  Ibid, 4: 215; Baydawi,  Ibid, 4: 248

⁶  Muhammad b. Ya'kub, al- Firuzabadi, Tartib al-qamus al-muhit, alâ tarikat al-misbah al-munir wa asasi al-balaga, (Isa Al-Babi Al-Halabi), 1: 344;  Maḥmūd b.ʻAbd Allāh, al-Ālūsī, Ruh al-ma'âni fî at-tafsir al-Qur'ân al-azîm wa al- sab' al-mathânî, (Beirut: Dar Al-Fikr, 1987), 28: 38; Ash-Shawkan', Muhammad b. Ali, Al-fath al-qadir al-jami' fi ar-rivayah wa dirayah min 'ilmi at-tafsir, (Egypt: Mustafa Al-Babi Al-Halabî, 1964), 5: 30; Penrica B.A., John, Dictinary and glossary the Qur'an, (Curzon Press, 1976), p. 20; Al -Isfahanî, Al- Müfradât, p. 67

⁷ Abu Abdillah Muhammad ibn Ahmad, Al-Qurtubi, Al-Jâmi lî-ahkâm al-Qur'ân, (Beirut: Dâr Al-Kütub Al-İlmiyye, 1988), 16: 149

⁸ Asad, Muhammad, The Message of the Qur'an, (England: The Book Foundation, 2003)., p. 768

⁹ Look. Asad, Ibid, p. 840; After Uhud war the hypocrites of Madina had said:  “If we had any power of decision, we would not have left so many dead behind”. When Muslims got defeat and had been killed 70 men from them, this verse revealed: “Say (unto them): “Even if you had remained in your homes, those [of you] whose death had been ordained would indeed have gone forth to the place where they were destined to lie down” (Âli Imrân, 3/ 154) This implies that all of event becomes according a destiny.

¹⁰ Zamakhshari,  Ibid, 4: 479-480

¹¹ Siad, Nursi,  Sozler, (İstanbul: Sözler publishing house, 2004), p.  43

¹²  Siad, Nursi, Sualar, (İstanbul: Sözler publishing house, 2004), p. 304

¹³  For example Jung says that “Among all my patients in the second half of life-that is to say, over thirty five-there has not been one whose problem in the last resort was not that of finding a religious outlook on life. It is safe to say that every one of them fell ill because he had lost what the living religious of every age have given to their followers, and none of them has been really healed who did not regain his religious outlook.” Look. Jung, C.G., Psychology and Religion West and East, (Translated by R. F. C. Hull), (Pantheon Books), p. 334; Robert, Frager,  Heart, Self and soul / Kalp, nafs wa ruh (Was translated to Turkish Language by Ibrahim Kapaklikaya), (Gelenek publishing house, 2003) , p. 87

After those experiences he decide on the religious approach to life is closely relate to psychological health. Mystical belief systems were important expressions of human ideals and aspirations. He says “For me, religious experience is real, is true. I have found that through such religious experiences the soul may be “saved,” its integration hastened, and spiritual equilibrium established” . Frager, Ibid, p. 87

¹⁴  Fakhr al-Din, al-Razi, Al-Tafsir al-kabir, (Tahran: Dâr al-kütub Al-İlm), 7: 268

¹⁵ Abd Ar-Rahim, Muhammad, Tafshir al-Hasan al-Basri, (Dar al-hadis), 2:74

¹⁶  Ibn Qayyim, Al-Jawziyya, Al-Jawab al-al-kafi, (Beirut: Dar al-Ihya al-Ulum),  p.116-117

¹⁷  Look. Nursî, Sözler, p. 131; Said, Nursi, The Words (Translated by. Sukran Vahide), (İstanbul: Sozler Publishing house, 2004), p. 158

¹⁸  Immanuel, Kant, Fundemental principles of the metaphysic of morals (Was translated by. T. K. Abbott), (Was edited by. Prometheus Books, 1988), p. 19

¹⁹  Nursî, Sözler,  p. 145

²⁰  Al-Qardawi, Yusuf, Al-Iman wa al-hayat, p.75

²¹ Abu Al-Qasim Abd al-karim, Al- Qushayri, Tafshir al-Kushayri, (Beirut: Dar Al-Kutub Al-Ilmiyya), 3: 269; Muhammad Hamdi, Yazır, Ibid, p.  275

²²  Al-Jawziyya, Ibn Qayyim, Tibb Al-Qulub, (Jidde: 1983).p. 53

²³ Al-Jawziyya, Ibn Qayyim, Ad-Dâ'u wa Ad-Dawâu, (Damascus: Dar al-Qalem, 2001)., p. 165; Al-Jawziyya, Ibn Qayyim, Al-Jawabu Al-Kafi li man saala an dawâi  As-shafi, (Beirut: Dar Al-Ihyâi Ulûm, 1990), p. 116 -117

²⁴  Bukhari, Iman, 39;  Muslim, Musâkat, 107; Ibn Maca, Fitan, 14; Darimi, Buyu', 1; Ahmad b. Hanbal, Musnad, 4: 55

²⁵  Said, Nursi, Mektubat / Letters (translation by: Sukran Vahide), (Sozler Publishing house, 2001), p. 443

²⁶   Al-Jawziyya, Ibn Qayyim, Al-Jawabu Al-Kafi li Man Saala an Dawâi  As-Shafi, (Beirut: Dar Al-Ihyâi Ulûm, 1990).p.117; Kamil, Umar Abdullah,At-Tasavvuf beyna al-ifrat wa at-tafrit, (Beirut:  2001), p. 63; Al-Qardawî, Yusuf, Al-Iman wa al-hayat, p. 73;  al-Qardawi, Yusuf, Al-Hasâisu al-amma li al-Islam, (Maktabatu Vahba, 1989), p. 23

²⁷ Tabari, Abu Ja'fer Muhammad b. Jerir, The History of al-Tabarî / Târih al-umam wa al-mülûk,  (Beirut, 1407), 1: 130; Muhammad,  Hamidullah, Al-Vesaiku As-Siyasiyye, (Beirut: Dar al-nefâis, 1985), p. 109; Muhammad,  Hamidullah,  The prophet of Islam ( Was translated to Turkish language by: Salih Tuğ), 4. edt., (İstanbul: İrfan Publishing house, 1980), 1: 361

SUPPLICATION, PRAYER AND THEIR INNER PEACE

SUPPLICATION, PRAYER AND THEIR INNER PEACE

    Friday, September 14, 2012   No comments

Prof.Dr. Hayati Aydin

ABSTRACT

The article emphasizes two important worship of Islam. Namely focuses on  two different size of Prayer: The Supplication (Du'a)and Prayer (Salat)  word.

 The Supplication in Islamic tradition means a person's giving his whole self to God and present his physical and spiritual needs to him. Salat (Prayer) is communication between the temporal and spiritual domains. İn fact prayers are as regulators and equaliser systems on personality and character. In the context of worshipping, if prayers done according to consciousness they help improve man both inside and outside. As man consciously during worshipping God feels that he is in front of God, He feels that all of time he is in front of God and his control regulates his behaviours.

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SUPPLICATION, PRAYER AND THEIR INNER PEACE

In the Arabic language Salat (worship) means to the meaning of supplication (dua) (Al-Isfahani, Undated, p. 285; At-Tahanawi, 1998, 3: 76; Al-Qurtubi, 1988, 8: 159)^. For example to say “Sallaytu alayhi” is coming to the meaning of “ I supplicated to the God for Him”(Muslim, Siyam, 159; Adbu Dawud, Sawm, 74, 75 Ati'ma, 1;Timizi, Sawm, 63; Nasai, Siyam, 51, Ibn Maca, Siyam, 47; Darimi, Sawm, 31; Malik, Hacc, 137; Ahmad b. Hanbal, 3: 242, 477, 489, 507, 5: 29; Reshit Riza, Undated, 2: 25). Just as in some verses, Salat expression is used as Dua. For example,” Invoke blessings (Salli) upon them. Your blessing (Salat) will surely bring them peace” (At-Tauba, 9 / 103). “God and His angels shower their blessings (Yusallune) to the Prophet .O believers you should also send your blessings (Sallu) on him” (33/ 56).

But generally Salat is used for worshipping. Raghib al-Isfahani says that the entitling of Salt as Salat is because its origin and supplication and the entitling of it as Salat is similar to entitling of anything by some-parts which itself includes (Al-Isfahani, Undated, p. 285).

For this reason Salat statement includes The supplication (du'a) and salat (prayer) together. 

These two elements correspond to different needs of human soul.

2.1. The Supplication (Du'a): In dictionaries, Dua (Prayer) comes closer to the meaning of calling, wishing and crying for help but in Islamic tradition it means a person's giving his whole self to God and present his physical and spiritual needs to him.

Du'a is the personal expression of one's individual desires, needs and anxieties.

“Take (O Muhammad), from their wealth a charity by which you purify them and cause them increase, and invoke [Allah's blessings] upon them. Indeed, your prayers are reassurance for them. And Allah is Heraing and Knowing” ( 9/103)

In fact the main purpose of Dua (prayer) is to be in the meaning of supplying the needs of people for God and to make supplication to God.  Then we can say Dua (prayer) is a dialogue with God. The need of prayer is a natural one.  “Psychologically speaking, prayer is instinctive in terms of in its origin. Prayer as a means of spiritual illumination is a normal vital act by which the little island of our personality suddenly discovers its situation in a larger whole of life.”(Iqbal, 1982, p. 85)

Generally, according to Muslim psychologists, prayers are as regulators and equaliser systems on personality and character. In the context of worshipping, if they (prayers) done according to consciousness they help improve man both inside and outside. As man consciously during worshipping God feels that he is in front of God, He feels that all of time he is in front of God and His control regulates his behaviours.  Here! In the context of worships supplication help man to overcome his difficulties and this psychological effect gives a result in man's sincerity of worshipping (Koc, 2004, 10: 118-119; Najati, 1997, pp. 284-285).

Additionally, especially the supplication has very important effect on soul's presence. According to Thomas Hyslop: The great West Riding Asylum in England the best sleep-producing agent is prayer which his practice has. He says that “I say this, purely as a medical man. The exercise of prayer, in those who habitually exert it, must be regarded by us doctors as the most adequate and normal of all the pacifiers of the mind and calmer of the nerves.” (James, 1962, p. 235).

A worshiper takes refuge behind God's shelter during his worshipping.  This provides a support to our spiritual side. Just as Alexis Carrel about supplication that there is a power in the supplication. Even though we do not want but this occurs. For this reason, we should leave children alone and give the opportunity of listening themselves(Carrel, 1988, p. 111).

William James says that “for most of us, a world with no such inner refuge when the outer social self failed and dropped from us would be the abyss of horror. I say “for most of us”, because it is probable that individuals differ a good deal in the degree in which they are haunted by this sense of an ideal spectator. It is a much more essential part of the consciousness of some men than of others. Those who have the most of it are possibly the most religious men. But I am sure that even those who say they are altogether without it deceive themselves, and really have it in some degree.”(Iqbal, 1982, p. 85)

These explanations indicate that the supplication has a great impact on the occurrence of spiritual presence.

  2.2. Prayer (Salat): Islamic faith includes Salat (prayer; dhikr), which is one the beautiful direction of Islam. Salat is considered the most important dhikr (The remembrance of God) in Islamic tradition.

Prayer is communication between the temporal and spiritual domains. In its most exterior usage, the word implies petition of the individual before the Creator (Perry, 1971, p. 520). By the dhikr man cleans his soul's dirt and purges his negative elements. For this reason, by dhikr man gradually goes away from his troubles and the illness of soul. “ That prayer has great power which a person makes with all his might. It makes a sour heart sweet, a sad heart merry, a poor heart rich, a foolish heart wise, a timid heart brave, a sick heart well, a blind heart full of sight, a cold heart ardent. It draws down the great God into the little heart, it drives the hungry soul up into the fullness of God, it brings together two lowers. God and the soul in a wondrous place where they speak much of love” (Perry, 1971, p. 521). Especially dhikr is recognised by all Sufis as the most direct means of alleviating the illness of soul (Lumbard, 1999, p. 259).

  The God emphasises the fact in those verses:

“Who have believed and whose hearts have rest in the remembrance of Allah. Verily in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find rest! Those who believe and do right: Joy is for them, and bliss the journey's end” (Ar-Ra'd, 13/ 28-29)

This verse is proving us that the remembrance of God gives man rest and soul presence. Because, by dhikr man comes to the close of divine existence and participate to the divine unity. Anyway Islam itself is the religion of nature. God says in the Qur'an:

““So set your whole being upon the Religion as one of pure faith. This is the original pattern belonging to God upon which He has originated humankind. …” ( Ar-Rûm, 30/30)

As nature shows an incline to the behaviour that accord to  it. The nature of human has been patterned by God on the Fitratallah (God's own nature). For this reason to make dhikr is to act according to the nature; this calms down man in the context of soul. 

The Qur'an calls Islam as Al-Din Al-Qayyim (the right religion, natural religion). according to the above verse. In this point to be a Muslim is to be in behaviours according to nature. Contrary behaviour to Islam is a contradiction with nature.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) says that the more one's nature is close to moderate, the better he becomes suitable to get virtue level intelligently and practically (Ibn Sina, 1952, p. 198). In this viewpoint since Islam is the religion of nature, it makes man's nature moderate in giving man the best nature opportunity in the progress of him. In my opinion, this view makes sense in that the past generation who assimilated faith they progressed in short time in virtues and knowledge.  Because, the religion of Islam brought what reinforces to fitrat.

Ghazali says that all of organs enjoy the actswhich is consistent with their nature. Eye enjoys looking at the beautiful landscape; aural enjoys hearing the nice voices. Likewise heart has been created for Allah and enjoys Allah (Ghazali, Undated, p. 138).  

According to Sufism (mysticism of the Islam) when a man makes dhikr he reaches in peace, comes to presence, be in rest and returns to the fitratallah wherein upholds the trust and thus fulfils its covenant, for by the light of the dhikr it sees the true relation between the servant and his Lord (Lumbard, p. 258).

The virtues of dhikr are numerously to be described. For example, one is this according to Said Nursi:

“Everyone wants a solace and seeks a pleasure in order to be saved a little from the upheavals of life and its heavy burdens, and to take a breather; everyone searches out something familiar and friendly to banish the loneliness. The social gatherings in civilized life afford a temporary, but heedless and drunken familiarity, intimacy, and solace for one or two out of ten people. However, eighty per cent live solitary lives in mountains or valleys, or are driven to distant places in search of a livelihood, or due to agencies like calamities and old age which make them think of the hereafter, they are deprived of the sociableness of man's groups and societies. The situation affords them no familiarity, friendliness, or consolation.

And so, the true solace and intimacy and sweet pleasure of such a person is, being turned to his heart in those distant places and desolate mountains and distressing valleys, to work it by means of the remembrance of God and reflective thought. Saying: “Allah!”, it is to become familiar with Him with his heart, and through that familiarity to think of the things around him, which were regarding him savagely, as smiling on him familiarly, and saying: “My Creator, Whom I am recollecting, has innumerable servants here in my place of solitude, just as He has everywhere. I am not alone; loneliness has no meaning.” Through his belief, he receives pleasure from that familiarity. He understands the meaning of the happiness of life, and offers thanks to God”(Nursi, 2001, p. 519).

As told above Salat (Prayer) is the biggest dhikr. For this reason, Islam gives man a beautiful psychological state by its prayer ritual. If a man performs prayer (salat), he will feel beauty in his soul after prayer. His soul can not take shelter his boundary after prayer. This âyath explains this reality:

“Those who believe and find peace in their hearts from the contemplation of God: Surely there is peace of heart in the contemplation of God” (Ra'd, 13/28)

The hearts of those who believe are described in this verse as finding a calm, sweet rest in remembrance of God. Hearts get peace, get calm and break from their sorrow by God. Because the beginning and the end finishes in God and all of causes are based on God. The possible chain of existence cuts to God. God is who there is nobody above Him and has nothing further from Him, because Allah is who, far from the end and the quantity both in existence and in conscience, has nothing forward from him that the heartily movement can be further than Him.

Since the biggest dhikr is prayer (salat). As we pointed out in our article (Islam: The relion of peace in Sime journal) the prayer transmits man's soul to quit. Owing to the prayer's this peculiarity Prophet Muhammad (p.u.h.) was saying to Bilal¹ on the time of the canonical call to prayer Azan “(O Bilal ) stand up make quit us by azan” (Abu Davud, Adab, 4985, 4986; Ahmad b. Hanbal, 5: 364)

Prayer calms down people's soul, because (a) the prayer contacts to the person into the divine world, as he comes to the presence and experience his ascension (Miraj) gets the name as ascent (Miraj) of the believer (Mumin); (b) in prayer one contacts to the God and participate to His divine unity. For example when a person performs prayer as if he speaks with the God in Al-Fatihah:

“All praise be to Allah, Lord of all the worlds. Most beneficent, ever-merciful. King of the Day of Judgement. You alone we worship, and to you alone turn for help. Guide us (O Lord) to the path that is straight, The path of those You have blessed, not of those who have earned Your anger, nor those who have gone astray”(1 / 1-7)

Ibn Atâ'illâh says that prayer is a cleansing for hearts from the stain of iniquities, and an opening to the door of the mysteries. Prayer is the place of confidence and the wellspring of intimacies; It widens the scope of the mysteries, and shines on the rays of the luminaries. Especially, night prayer is very much effective for soul.

“Surely in the watches of the night the soul is most receptive and words more telling” (73/6)

Since Al-Muzzammil sura's eighth âyath says that “Recite the name of your Trainer...” (73 / 8) in the verse the word “trainer” means educator that shows the night prayer that raise the man to spiritual degrees and in this (way), the role of the God's training to man will be grand.

According to Fahkr al-Din Al-Razi, when the heart of man observes the physical world he feels himself in sorrow and grief and in hard tendency about getting it. But when he thinks of God he feels a great calmness with the help of the light given by God( Ar-Razi, Undated, 7: 40). However the psychiatrists and psychoanalysts can not understand this spiritual position. Since psychiatrists and psychoanalysts are interested only in clinical circumstance, they did not see the person's spiritual depth that can be caught in worship.

Especially the night prayer makes powerful performance of man's soul. According to Fahkr al-Din Al-Razi, man gets some mystery things along night waking up. He says such: When man at night dark at his home makes worship and dihkr surely he isn't busy with anything. In this time, heart goes towards mental thoughts and divine ideas, sometimes bright and spiritual conquests, sometimes happiness and shudder that get from contact to divine world or bright ideas ( Ar-Razi, Undated, 10: 685).

In just the same way al-Kindi says: The soul substance of man is as the substance of God in power. When a man isolates oneself from lust and taste of word it pierces through the truth of things. If after this, it look after the truth of things and search it, this transmit to the soul's clean and it's polished; then emerge the truth of things as image of things appear in mirror (Najati, 1993, p. 30).

Some Modern Western scholars are thinking like al-Kindi.  For example, Jung in his famous theory of type, classified sensation and intuition together as ways of gathering information, as distinct from ways of making decision. Sensation refers to a focus on direct sense experience, perception of details, and concrete fact: what one can see, touch, and smell. Sensing types tend to respond to the immediate situation and deal effectively with all sorts of crises and emergencies. Intuition is a way of comprehending sensory information in terms of possibilities, past experience, future goals, and unconscious process. Strongly intuitive people add meaning to their perceptions so rapidly that they often cannot separate their interpretations from the raw sensory data. Intuitives integrate new information quickly, automatically relating past experience and relevant information to immediate experience. Because it often includes unconscious material, intuitive thinking appears to proceed by leaps and bounds. Jung has called the least developed function in each individual the inferior function. It is the least conscious and the most primitive, or undifferentiated. For some people it can represent a seemingly demonic influence, because they have so little understanding of or control over it. Since it is less consciously developed, the inferior function may also serve as a way into the unconscious.Jung has said that it is through our inferior function, that is least developed in us, that we see God. By struggling with and confronting inner obstacles, we can come closer to the divine (www.itp.edu/about/carl_Jung; Frager, 2003, p. 65).

As seen, Jung's thought is like Al-Kindi on this subject. Even though psychologists don't agree on this kind of information² I believe as Al-Kindi too. In old times, I removed myself from badness and gossip etc. For a long time, I saw hundreds of true dreams in the night. This fact manifests that maybe psychologists could not recognize the soul sufficient. Because the soul is a very mysterious and intangable existence. No one can tell that people who see the future events in their dreams gain this kind of quality by working, but it is certainly the pleasure of Allah. They are some senses, depending upon some senses, perceived from the divine world.

Believers accept that man can build up a connection with the other world and the cosmos. The Qur'an says: “…I have breathed into him (Adam) of My sprit…”(Al-Hıcr/, 15/29; Sâd, 38/72). But unfortunately we lost our souls as Jung's point out: “The marvellous development of science and techniques is counterbalanced by an appalling lack of wisdom and introspection” (Jung, Undated, p. 17).

 Even though as those rituals convey some wind of celestial religion, in my opinion, those are some destroyed rituals, suits to the characteristic of Far East countries. In almost every culture there are prayers, but they differ from each other. In terms of this subject, as meditation and Yoga rituals do not reach the hillside of prayer (salat), they can not connect the man to the cosmos and the other world, and can not convey the man to a horizon. But the prayer raises the man to divine world.³

Man's soul is a transparent essence and has transcendence direction. This fact has been emphasized by psychologists densely by Abraham Maslow's Transpersonal Psychology and Ken Wilber (Boorstein, Undated, X-XI; Frager, Undated, p. 464).

Muhammad Iqbal says those about the subject:

“The 'Heart' is a kind of inner intuition or insight which, in the beautiful words of Rumi, feeds on the rays of the sun and brings us into contact with aspects of Reality other than those open to sense-perception. The total -Reality, which enters our awareness and appears on interpretation as an empirical fact, has other ways of invading our consciousness and offers further opportunities of interpretation. The revealed and mystic literature of mankind bears ample testimony to the fact that religious experience has been too enduring and dominant in the history of mankind to be rejected as mere illusion. The facts of religious experience one  facts among other fact of human experience and, in the capacity of yielding knowledge by interpretation one fact is as good as another (Iqbal, 1982, pp. 37-38, 40). We are not yet in possession of a really effective scientific method to analyse the contents of non-rational modes of consciousness(Iqbal, 1982, p. 17).

Purification of the outer organs accompanied inner purification. When we think of lemon, how our mount be comes watery; so there is a correlation between body and soul.  For this reason, who seek the nearness of God always trays to remain pure both outwardly and inwardly. the Qur'an says: “Prayer prevents transgression of passions and the grave sins”(29/45) As, when a man stands in front of God five times in every day and has its consciousness, he can't courage to do wrongdoing. By praying, the intimate God-man relationship is deepened and make man a person who spiritually strengthened. So it would appear that one of the important roles of Islamic prayer is to act for a protection against the defilement and contamination that affect man's life. When a man lives his life with consciousness of his link with the Lord, he acquires an inward disposition to absorb God's Attributes and obtains the capacity to resist evil (Allahbakhsh, Undated, p. 134 ). As prayer is the means of progress towards God, it is also a means of making us obey God's orders and preventing us from doing that which God has prohibited and forbidden. When a person performs ablution, thinking of all the sins committed by him through his different organs, and goes on praying to God as a penitent asking for His forgiveness and mercy, his sins are forgiven, and hands and face are illumined (Ashraf, Undated, pp. 112, 118 ).

Conclusion

As a result according to Quran  the remembrance of God gives man rest and soul presence. Since Salat is considered the most important dhikr (The remembrance of God) in Islamic tradition by the Supplication (Du'a) and Prayer (Salat)   man comes to the close of divine existence and participate to the divine unity. This enables him largely psychological serenity and peace of mind.

محاسن دستور مكتوب من وراء ستار الجهل

محاسن دستور مكتوب من وراء ستار الجهل

    Saturday, July 28, 2012   No comments

بقلم أحمد سوايعية*

يقوم شركاء الحكم في تونس  بنقاش عقيم حول شكل الحكومة لما بعد عهد نظام الاستبداد. وخلال مؤتمرها التاسع، قررت حركة النهضة دعمها للنظام البرلماني في حين يفضل قادة الأحزاب السياسية الأخرى نموذج نظام رئاسي معدل. لذلك، هدد بعض السياسيين المحسوبين عل النهضة باجراء استفتاء عام لتسوية هذه المسألة. ورغم أن هذه المسألة قد تكون مهمة، فإنها ليست بالأساسية اللازمة. فيبدوأن  قادة تونس السياسيين لا يأخذون مأخذ الجد مسؤولياتهم في وضع أساس متين لحكم قد يلهم بقية العالم العربي نظرا لمكانة تونس التاريخي باعتبارها رائدة الصحوة العربية.

نظرا إلى أن العديد من قادة تونس الجدد هم من السجناء السياسيين و/أو منفيين سابقا، فقد كان أحرى بهم أن يسألوا عن الهياكل المؤسساتية والدستورية التي قد تكون قادرة على منع النظام السابق من تعذيب السجناء السياسيين، واعتقال نشطاء تعسفا، وإجبار بعض ألمع المواهب الى المنفى والهجرة إكراها و ظلما. ينبغي أن يكون اهتمامهم بتحديد مؤسسات الحكم  الضرورية لحماية كرامة المواطنين ومنع الاستبداد والطغيان، ومحاربة الفساد، واستئصال آفة الرئاسة مدى الحياة. فضحايا الاستبداد لا يهمهم إن كان سوء المعاملة يجري في ظل نظام رئاسي أو برلماني أو ملكي،  بقدر ما يهمهم أن لا يحدث الظلم والاستبداد في المقام الأول.

صحيح، قد يكون للنظام الرئاسي بعض الفضائل والمحاسن أكثر من النظام البرلماني، والعكس كذلك. ولكن لا يمثل أحدهما أو الآخر الحكم الفاضل بالضرورة. محدودية النظامين واضحة بما فيها تلك الموجودة في الديمقراطيات الغربية. وحتى نماذج الحكم الإسلامية الناشئة تعاني من المساوئ والمشاكل العملية والنظرية. ففي تركيا، مثلا، البلد الذي ترغب حركة النهضة في محاكاة نموذجه، يعكف قادة ما يسمى بالاسلام المعتدل على ترقيع الدستور من أجل تقوية صلاحيات رئاسة الجمهورية لتهيئة المؤسسة للقائد الطموح، رجب طيب أردوغان، ليتولاها لما تنتهي دورته الثانية والأخيرة  كرئيس للوزراء. في إيران، كذلك، فقد ألمح  قائد الثورة هناك إلى إمكانية تعديل الدستور والرجوع إلى النظام البرلماني لتجنب أزمة الإنتخابات الرئاسية المثيرة للجدل عام 2009.

من المفيد أن يفكر التونسيون، كرواد التغيير المدني اللاعنفي في العالم العربي المعاصر، في أبعد من حدود أشكال الحكم. يجب عليهم التفكير في المؤسسات والضمانات الدستورية التي من شأنها أن تسمح لهم بالتغلب على القيود المفروضة على النماذج الغربية ومساوئها. فيتمتع التونسيون بعامل "فوات الأوان" للتعلم من تجارب الديمقراطيات الأخرى التي سبقت. ولذلك، فإنه بإمكانهم بناء نظام خال من أوجه القصور في النظم السياسية القائمة. وقد يتحقق ذلك بالبدء في طرح الأسئلة الصحيحة والبنائة وتقديم اجابات من "وراء ستار الجهل ". مما يعني أن يتصور صائغو الدستور الجديد أنفسهم مكان السجناء السياسيين، والمزارعين الفقراء، والفنانين المبدعين، والعلماء المبتكرين ورجال الأعمال النزهاء، والعمال الكادحين، والطلاب الطامحين، والمواطنين العاطلين عن العمل كليا أو جزئيا... ومن ثم طرح هذا السؤال: ما هي المؤسسات التي ينبغي لنا أن نكرسها لحماية حقوق وكرامة المواطنين المستضعفين والمهمشين لزاما وقطعا.

قد تساعد صياغة الدستور من "وراء ستار الجهل " على إقامة حكومة عادلة، ووضع دستور يكرس الحكم الرشيد، وحماية مؤسسات المجتمع المدني. كحد أدنى، يجب أن يكرس هذا الدستور الجديد مبدأ الفصل بين السلطات الحاكمة، وحماية الصحافة كسلطة رابعة للحكم المسؤول وضمان الوصول إلى السجلات والوثائق الخاص بالحق العام، وفرض حدود زمنية (لا تتعد العشر سنين) على جميع المسؤولين المنتخبين، وتوفير مبادئ توجيهية كشفية صارمة عن تلقي الأموال  الداعمة للحملات  الإنتخابية. ينبغي أن يحمي الدستور الجديد حقوق الفقراء قبل الأغنياء، وأن ينصر المظلومين أمام الظالمين، وأن يدافع عن الضعفاء قبل الأقوياء، وأن ينصف ضحايا الإستبداد، وأن يحافظ على كرامة الإنسان، وأن يأمن أرواح وممتلكات جميع المواطنين بدون تمييز.

على واضعي الدستور الجديد التركيز على الابتكار لا التقليد. فالعديد من الأنظمة الديمقراطية الغربية تعاني من دساتير عفا عليها الزمن، ومنظمات حزبية فاسدة، وتغلغل أصحاب المصالح الخاصة ، وارتفاع تكلفة المشاركة في الحياة السياسية. على واضعي الدستور التونسي الجديد تجنب هذه المساوئ  والمباشرة في سن دستور يرتقي إلى مستوى تضحيات وتطلعات كل التونسيين.

___________

نبذة عن الكاتب:

* يدرس الأستاذ أحمد سوايعية (http://www.ahmedsouaiaia.com/)  في جامعة أيوا (USA) . الآراء المعبر عنها هنا مسؤولية الكاتب كمواطن معلقا عن مسائل ذات الاهتمام العام، لا نيابة عن الجامعة أو أي منظمة أخرى قد ينتمي الكاتب.

Asia Times Online :: Apathy in the face of cruelty

Asia Times Online :: Apathy in the face of cruelty

    Wednesday, December 14, 2011   No comments

Asia Times Online :: Apathy in the face of cruelty

Since the start of the Libyan uprising, mainstream news outlets have reported that African and even Eastern European mercenaries were fighting with Muammar Gaddafi's forces. The Libyan rebels, eager to minimize any support for Gaddafi among the Libyan population, have fed Western media horror stories of mass murder carried out by black Africans.

Consequently, many immigrant workers were caught between the ire of a regime that did not care much for them and a new wave of prejudice and discrimination fueled by the media and rebel propaganda. The fact that some foreigners fought for the regime


does not tell the full story. Most African immigrants were unwilling participants in a war that no one had anticipated.

In order to understand the presence of so many Africans and non-Africans in Libya, one must understand the role played by the former dictator.

Using Libya's large oil revenues as if they constituted his personal fortune, Gaddafi engaged in meddling in the affairs of his neighbors, supporting nationalist movements, and conspiring to overthrow regimes he did not like.

He also used immigrant workers to blackmail his neighbors. In the 1980s and 1990s Gaddafi gave hundreds of thousands of Tunisian workers hours, not days, to leave the country empty-handed. The sudden "dumping" of workers without their earnings was meant to create economic and social crisis for neighboring governments.

It was his way of punishing the Tunisian authoritarians Bourguiba and Ben Ali. He used the same tactic with the Egyptians. But Gaddafi's most bizarre achievement was coaxing some European leaders to use him as a gatekeeper, in charge of preventing Africans from reaching the shores of Europe.

Speaking at a ceremony in Rome on August 31, 2010 and standing next to (then) Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi, Gaddafi declared:...

Reasoned Comments (RC): Jihad Against Islam

Reasoned Comments (RC): Jihad Against Islam

    Saturday, November 12, 2011   No comments

Reasoned Comments (RC): Jihad Against Islam: By Robert Steinback Illustration by James Victore Rarely has the United States seen a more reckless and bare-knuckled campaign to vilify...

Reasoned Comments: The “very scary” Iranian Terror plot: The women of al-Nahda: faces of the new Tunisian r...

Reasoned Comments: The “very scary” Iranian Terror plot: The women of al-Nahda: faces of the new Tunisian r...

    Tuesday, November 08, 2011   No comments

Reasoned Comments: The women of al-Nahda: faces of the new Tunisian r...: by Ahmed E. Souaiaia* Before January 14, 2011, al-Nahda was the main opposition group in Tunisia. No one, even its most severe critics,...

WHY ISRAEL CAN'T BE A 'JEWISH STATE'

WHY ISRAEL CAN'T BE A 'JEWISH STATE'

    Monday, October 03, 2011   No comments

Sari Nusseibeh in Al Jazeera:

The Israeli government's current mantra is that the Palestinians must recognise a "Jewish State". Of course, the Palestinians have clearly and repeatedly recognised the State of Israel as such in the 1993 Oslo Accords (which were based on an Israeli promise to establish a Palestinian state within five years - a promise now shattered) and many times since. Recently, however, Israeli leaders have dramatically and unilaterally moved the goal-posts and are now clamouring that Palestinians must recognise Israel as a "Jewish State".

In 1946, the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry concluded that the demand for a "Jewish State" was not part of the obligations of the Balfour Declaration or the British Mandate. Even in the First Zionist Congress in Basel in 1897, when Zionists sought to "establish a home for the Jewish people", there was no reference of a "Jewish State". The Zionist Organisation preferred at first to use the description "Jewish homeland" or "Jewish Commonwealth". Many pioneering Zionist leaders, such as Judah Magnes and Martin Buber also avoided the clear and explicit term "Jewish State" for their project of a homeland for Jews, and preferred instead the concept of a democratic bi-national state.

More here.

What’s Your Theology Like? -On Knowledge, Good Deeds and Spirituality

What’s Your Theology Like? -On Knowledge, Good Deeds and Spirituality

    Friday, March 04, 2011   No comments

Adis Duderija

It would be fair to assert that every religious tradition in human history has highly valued and continues to highly value knowledge, good deeds and spirituality (i.e. in sense of performance of some kind of religious rituals) however differently they were/are defined or put into practice.

What is interesting to explore, and this is the aim of this short article, is the idea of the relative importance placed on these three pillars of religious tradition one vis-a-vis the other. This could be accomplished both comparatively (i.e. across different religions) and well as within the various strands of a particular religious tradition. It could also be examined chronologically tracing any possible patterns or shifts in patterns. An examination of this ‘prioritising’ is useful as it would give us an insight into the ‘ideal’ types of theologies prevalent among the adherents of religious traditions and perhaps be used as a method for developing typologies of theologies.

What I mean by prioritising or the relative importance given to one of the pillars in relation to the other can be best illustrated with the following example. Imagine you had six hours a day to dedicate to expanding your knowledge (not necessarily religious in the narrow term of the word but inclusive of it), doing good deeds or engaging in spiritual rituals? Percentagewise how would you ideally divide this time up? The answer to this question would, in my view, be indicative of the type of theology you subscribe to.

In what follows I‘d like to briefly identify and discuss three different ‘ideal types’ of theologies prevalent in my religious tradition of Islam today through the lens of this triad of knowledge-good deeds- spirituality. Of course, there is a rich history of ideas pertaining to this problematic in Islamic history, especially in relation to the definition of faith/belief (iman). The views on this problematic can be conceived as a kind of a continuum. One side there were advocates who insisted that good deeds (including the normatively prescribed rituals) were an essential prerequisites of iman with the implication that the failure to perform them was tantamount to apostasy- a crime many considered to be punishable by death. On the other hand there were those who subscribed to the view that a tacit or a verbal expression of proclaiming the faith was considered sufficient to be part of the faith community. My intention here is not to revisit these in detail but to describe in broad contours some of the contemporary theologies among Muslims and some of their implications in relation to issues such as nature of revelation and scripture, the relationship between law and ethics and others.

One such theology I call progressive. Progressive theology gives priority to orthopraxis over orthodoxy. This means that it considers performance of good deeds more important than acquisition of knowledge leading to ‘correct ‘ faith/belief or that of engaging in ritual . For this type of theology the human and the human condition are central to it. The discussions pertaining to how to arrive at ‘correct belief’, those centring on nature of God and its relationship with the cosmos and the living creation are of secondary importance. Instead, the alleviation of extreme poverty, being on the side of the wretched, marginalised, stigmatised, and the downtrodden is not only considered the purpose and the primary function of religion it is also viewed as an essential prerequisite leading to orthodoxy. In the Christian tradition this type of theology is referred to as ‘liberation theology.’ This theology, in my understanding of it, holds that humans are considered to experience the Divine most readily and immediately through their interactions with other human beings rather than by contemplating abstractly on the Divine , observing the nature or engaging in various spiritual exercises ( i.e. ritual). This theology , in my view, by implication favours inductive over deductive reasoning/thinking because its foundation and starting point is the world of the human condition with its incredible diversity (including the religious) and complexity which makes it very difficult to think in binary terms (e.g. having salvation –not having salvation). Furthermore, this theology, by giving primacy to good deeds and to the human and by being less concerned about knowledge leading to ‘correct’ belief is also more likely to be egalitarian eschewing any form of hierarchies , most notably those based on gender , sexual orientation, race or ethnicity. In addition, it is more likely to be open to and accommodating of the idea of religious pluralism, i.e. the premise that none of the reified religious traditions made in the crucible of history (as well as those in the present and the future) are capable of objectively and fully capturing the Divine, thus none can claim monopoly over God. This, in turn, translates into the notion that, according to this progressive theology, the idea of God is not fully graspable to the human either through his intellect, mind, reason or the heart. By definition it also implies that that the sacred scriptures cannot offer us humans an unequivocal , clearly accessible and once and for all valid understanding of God through the simple process of reading/interpretation. Instead, it considers the human interpreter and her subjectivities and contingencies as most significantly determinative of the process of interpretation envisaged as a never ending dynamic process that continually evolves with reason. There is, in other words, an organic and dialectical relationship between revelation and reality. Furthermore, this theology gives precedence to reason- based ethics over law. It insists that law must be in constant service of ethics and that law ought to evolve with evolving ideas about ethics as developed by humanity- and in the post-revelatory period this evolution is exclusively driven by reason/intellect. Put succinctly, this theology embraces and even thrives on pluralism, diversity and what’s fundamental to all of it, uncertainty. Based on my own observations I consider this to be a minority theological position among contemporary Muslims, especially among the clerical establishment, but, importantly, a growing one.

The second type of theology can be described as purist. According to this theology, religion is all about correct belief (i.e. knowledge) and everything else is secondary to it. The central concern for the purists is how to, or put more precisely, from whom to obtain the correct knowledge in order to arrive at correct faith/belief. The nature of legitimate knowledge and its sources is, thus, very specifically defined, delineated and guarded. What follows from this is the idea that this purist theology is fixed and focuses centrally on discourses pertaining to God’s essence and nature rather than being focused on the human condition. God is primarily to be found/discovered in the sacred and other canonical scriptures rather then It being experienced through human social intercourses or by contemplating about /on nature and the cosmos. I refer to this as a scripturalist dimension of purist theology or scripturalism. As a corollary, scripturalism is closely linked to what could be termed positivist legalistic theology which views law as not only more superior to ethics but the very embodiment of it. Furthermore, ethics and reason are considered as not subject to evolution and to possess potential for positive change and growth ( i.e. progress). The law, according to this view, does not have a scripturally independent objective, underpinning or rationale. This theology favours, as such, deductive over inductive thinking/reasoning. In its epistemology and methods it resembles natural sciences and eschews uncertainty. Purist theology also favours decontextualized thought and defines good deeds rather statically and literally-independent of their underlying moral trajectories. Furthermore, the ‘rights’ of God are defined often as independent of at times in opposition to and always given precedence over to that of the’ rights’ of humans. The purists’ legalistic theology combined with scripturalism and strong opposition to the possibility of progress defined above also facilitates hierarchical structures, especially those based on religious creed or gender. As a result purist theology shuns religious pluralism, endorses various forms of gender inegaliterianism favouring the prevalent social and cultural customs and conditions of the time of the religious traditions formation and makes forceful theologically exclusivist claims. The scripturalist and decontextualized dimension of purists’ theology also significantly contributes to its strong hermeneutical inclination for narrowing down of legitimate or ‘authentic interpretation’s of the sacred and canonical texts. This theology, in various hues and degrees, in my view has considerable presence among contemporary Muslims.



The last ideal type discussed here is what I refer to as spiritual -ritualistic theology. Here self -introspection and deep meditative-like contemplation takes central stage in contrast to the social human condition (progressive) or that of the scriptures (purists). This contemplative quality takes often form in the engagement in elaborate rituals and recitation of sacred mantras/formulae either in isolation or in a communal setting. This sort of theology often employs the symbolism of the ‘heart’ as the locus of ‘true’ source of knowledge about God in contrast to that of the ‘intellect’ or ‘the sacred text’. As history testifies what is interesting about this type of theology is that it can lead or be accommodative of both progressive-like and purist-like theologies. It can function within the confines of ‘the law’ in form of positivist legal theology mentioned above –therefore be purist –like- or transcend it entirely by adopting an ethically underpinned theology of the progressives.



What does the future hold for these three ideal types of theologies? Are certain types going to be more likely to capture the minds and the hearts of the people? This question, of course, remains open. However with the rise of the moral moral consciousness , the noonsphere, with its simultaneous strong focus on the human condition, deep sharing of emotion, and the embrace of diversity it seems that the progressive theology is best equipped for meeting the ‘religious-spiritual’ needs of those humans who identify themselves to be ‘people of faith’.

Dr. Adis Duderija is currently a research associate at the Centre for Muslim States and Societies at the University of Western Australia in Perth

Building civil society institutions in post-authoritarian regimes

Building civil society institutions in post-authoritarian regimes

    Friday, February 11, 2011   No comments

by Ahmed E, Souaiaia*

Regardless of what happen in the next months, the year 2011 will enter the history books as the breakthrough year for Arab societies. On January 14, 2011, the Tunisian people ended the reign of a ruthless dictator and with it ended fear. The Tunisian revolution soon inspired peoples of other Arab countries to take charge of their own destiny. On January 23, thousands of Egyptians launched a similar revolt to bring an end to Hosni Mubarak’s reign. There are indications that Yemen, Algeria, Morocco, and Jordan will be transformed with or without protests. The Gulf states, too, will not remain unaffected by revolutions that are not only bringing about political change but also psychological transformation in the soul of Arab citizens; people taking charge of their own destiny and taking full ownership of their state of affairs.

The future of Arab societies is dependent on the transition from authoritarian rule to pluralism. There are many who are calling on the creation of civil society institutions starting with political parties, NGOs, and free press. In fact, just today, it was reported that a group of Saudis formally requested from the kind to allow them to form a political party. It is all positive change, but it may be placing emphasis on the wrong priorities. Establishing these entities immediately may have a long term negative impact on issues of social justice and rule of law. Replacing one-man Arab regimes by multi parties regimes can be just as oppressive and perhaps more suffocating. Instead, it is argued here that the transition to self-governance can be achieved when the separation of power takes precedence over partisan power sharing.

Not to suggest that power sharing among various political parties and representatives of interest groups is not a good thing, for it is. But the power sharing model is also susceptible to creating elite that could--and in most cases did--fence out marginalized minorities and the vulnerable groups and individuals.

What is proposed here is to focus the energy of change ushered in by these popular movements to create safeguards that shore up the rule of law, separate governing authorities, and empower watchdog organizations. The first step for establishing stable self-governing societies in the Arab world is to use the transitional period to draft constitutions, subject to popular referendum, that enshrine the independence of the judiciary, the sovereignty of the legislature, and the service-centered authority of the executive power.

To begin by establishing political parties and NGOs before securing the separation of powers is similar to placing the chariot before the horse. After all, one could ask, how effective can a human rights organization be in a paradigm where the judicial authority answers to the executive officer whose agents are generally the main culprits of committing human rights violations? The authoritarian Arab regimes were able to oppress with impunity because the legislature and the judiciary were tools in their hand. They used these branches of government to provide them with legal and legislative covers even as they arbitrarily arrested citizens, tortured political opponents, and misused public funds.

It will be utterly misguided if the new ruling elite that will emerge after these popular revolutions are allowed to create a new paradigm that would give the illusion of pluralistic governance but in reality preserve a power structure that marginalizes vulnerable social groups.

Civil society institutions are strongest when the legal and judicial mechanisms upon which they are founded are sound. Practically, this can be achieved by recognizing the various layers of civil society institutions.

First, constitutional and legal separation of powers must be guaranteed and established in reality. Moreover, leaders must find creative ways to evaluate and tenure judges. The less politics is involved in identifying, reviewing, and conferring tenure for judges the more empowered the judiciary will be in its application of the law and in preventing abuse of power.

The second important layer of civil society institutions consists of the presence of free and independent press. In most Arab countries, there are many news and media outlets that claim to be free and independent. A close examination of the structure of these institutions and the control over them reveal that they are not necessarily free and independent. Medial and press outlets in Arab countries are either state owned or privately controlled. The privately controlled outlets include newspapers and other media that are owned by political parties, unions, associations, and businesspersons. While the government controlled media are essentially propaganda tools, the privately held outlets promote the narrow interests of the shareholders and owners. Given that the press’ mission is to inform the public, one can hardly believe that an entity thus structured could indeed fulfill its mission with integrity. After all, how could such an institution faithfully serve two masters—the shareholders/owners and the public?

A free and independent press should have as primary mission the dissemination of critical information to citizens. It should exist to inform and to keep the governments’ dealings open and transparent. That goal cannot be achieved if the media or the press answers to shareholders or to political parties’ leaders. Creative and imaginative ways must be used to categorize and license free and independent press—perhaps relying on a combination of public funding, education, training, and legal regulations.

The last layer of civil society institutions would consist of any and all social groups representing all kinds of interests. This layer will be critical in providing services and empowering minorities, but as stated above, it cannot perform its functions if there is no rule of law or if the branches of government are not separate and sovereign.

Islamic societies are at a critical juncture. They could use this opportunity and build forward looking societies. They have a chance to learn from the mistakes of other societies: they can draft better constitutions, they can elect better leaders, and they can establish stronger foundations for the emergence of civil society institutions. They can turn the disadvantage of embracing pluralistic governance late by learning from the mistakes of those who preceded them. They could rely on hindsight to move beyond the shortcomings of older systems. They can reflect on the decades of hopelessness, marginalization, oppression, and denial of basic rights to create inclusive, civil, and proud peoples. They can give meaning to their existence in the clarity of collective wisdom, in the soberness of knowledge, and in the hopeful determination of dreamers.

* Professor Souaiaia, teaches classes in the department of Religious Studies, International Programs, and College of Law at the University of Iowa. Opinions expressed herein are the author’s, speaking as a citizen on matters of public interest; not speaking for the University or any other organization with which he is affiliated.